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Iwo Jima at 80: Sacrifice, Victory, and the Photograph That Helped Win the Peace.

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FEATURE image: Original photograph by Joe Rosenthal, February 23, 1945. Public Domain.

The Battle of Iwo Jima was one of the most costly and consequential American victories of World War II, securing a strategic foothold in the Pacific while producing iconic photographs and film footage that transformed a brutal military campaign into an enduring symbol of sacrifice, heroism, and national resolve.

The battle lasted from February 19 to March 26, 1945, and was among the fiercest engagements of the Pacific War.

Fourth Division Marines in Foxhole on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: “Fourth Division Marines in Foxhole on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Advancing Marine Flamethrower Squad, Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: “Advancing Marine Flamethrower Squad, Iwo Jima, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

The Battle of Iwo Jima was a nearly 40-day battle campaign fought by the U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy against the Japanese Imperial Army on the island of Iwo Jima in the Pacific. With 110,000 total battle personnel (over 70,000 troops), the American objective of their invasion (called “Operation Detachment”) was to capture the island and its airfields. Iwo Jima was situated between Japan and the American bomber bases in the Mariana Islands. Since summer 1944 unescorted American B-29 bombers were flying nearly 3000 miles roundtrip to bomb Japan and being lost at sea from entrenched Japanese defenses. With Iwo Jima in American hands U.S. fighter planes could escort the long-range bombers as well as have any damaged aircraft find sanctuary on the island. The American victory after a five week campaign resulted in the capture of Iwo Jima with its immediate benefit that, by war’s end, 2,400 B-29s were able to make safe forced landings on the island.

A primary American objective was to capture Iwo Jima’s airfields, allowing fighter escorts for B-29 bombers and emergency landing facilities closer to Japan.

Iwo Jima in 1945. Mount Suribachi is a knob at the bottom of the map. PHOTO: “Map of Iwo Jima, 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Marines Detonating Japanese Mine on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: “Marines Detonating Japanese Mine on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

The victory came at a tremendous cost, with thousands of American and Japanese casualties.

Marines Taking Shelter on the Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: “Marines Taking Shelter on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

There were 20,000 or so heavily-fortified Japanese defending the island to the death while U.S. Navy and Marine Corps aircrews had complete air superiority. The U.S. Navy provided heavy artillery gunfire support from the sea. The Battle of Iwo Jima, an American victory, took place from February 19 to March 26, 1945, and was one of the fiercest of World War II. That Americans could take the island was not the question. Its exact cost was. The casualty toll was heavy for both sides. The Japanese had 216 taken prisoner and up to 18,375 killed or missing in action. The American combat toll was also staggering: 6,821 killed in action, 19,217 wounded, and 2,648 experiencing battle trauma.

23d Regiment, Fourth Marine Division Command Post, Iwo Jima, 1945. PHOTO: “23d Regiment, Fourth Marine Division Command Post, Iwo Jima, 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Fifth Marine Division Command Post, Iwo Jima, 1945. PHOTO: “Fifth Marine Division Command Post, Iwo Jima, 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Joe Rosenthal (1911-2006), with his camera hanging at his side, surveys the landing beaches at Iwo Jima on March 7, 1945. Rosenthal was awarded the U.S. Navy Distinguished Public Service Award, as well as the Marine Corps Distinguished Public Service Award by the Marine Corps, for his war photography. Photo by AP/U.S. Marine Corps. Public Domain.

On Friday, February 23, 1945, Rosenthal landed on the island and heard that they were going to raise a flag on the highest point on the island which was the old volcano at the southwest end called Mount Suribachi. Rosenthal carried a Speed Graphic camera that was press standard issue and joined other photographers ready to ascend to the top. Halfway up they met a marine photographer coming down whose camera was obliterated by an enemy grenade explosion. Rosenthal and the others were told that the marines had already raised the flag. But the views were good from the summit anyway and still worth the climb. Once at the top Rosenthal and the rest saw marines who were working to affix a larger flag to a pipe under orders from a captain who wanted to replace it for the earlier smaller flag just raised. When the six marines started to raise that second larger flag on the heavy pole Rosenthal pushed his camera’s shutter. After taking the flag-raising photo, Rosenthal made his way back down Mount Suribachi to the shoreline. There, he took a transport boat out to the command ship, where he wrote captions for his photos and sent them, sight unseen, with the undeveloped film by seaplane to Guam.

Marines on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: “Marines on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

In the shadow of Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima, 1945. PHOTO: “In the shadow of Suribachi, Iwo Jima, 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Marines Advancing on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945 – 36324610020. PHOTO: “Marines Advancing on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945 – 36324610020” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

American flamethrowers in a foxhole on Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: Marine Flamethrowers in Foxholes, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Marine Firing 30mm, Iwo Jima, 1945. PHOTO: “Marine Firing 30mm, Iwo Jima, 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Iwo Jima – Mt Suribachi. PHOTO: “Iwo Jima – Mt Suribachi Detail” by Agsftw is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

“I took the picture. But the Marines took Iwo Jima.” — Joe Rosenthal.

In February 1945 Joe Rosenthal was a 33-year-old American photographer for the AP. Rosenthal’s poor eyesight prevented him from fighting in combat though his task as an embedded photographer placed him in Harm’s Way. Before Iwo Jima, Joe Rosenthal had landed with the marines on Guam and Peleliu. His Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph of the flag raising on Iwo Jima became a sign of hope for a war-weary American home front that victory in the Pacific would be theirs. It also became the iconic symbol of everything U.S. Marines. Rosenthal was very proud of his photograph of the six marines and the Marines overall, though modest about any accolades that came his way. Rosenthal put his role in perspective, saying: “I took the picture. But the Marines took Iwo Jima.” Yet it is not to be forgotten that Rosenthal was exposing himself to the same dangers as the six marines that day when he took his iconic photograph for history of the flag raising on Iwo Jima on February 23, 1945.

Photographer Joe Rosenthal’s image of the flag raising atop Mount Suribachi became one of the most recognizable photographs in history and a symbol of American determination.

Original photograph by Joe Rosenthal, February 23, 1945. Public Domain.

Color motion picture footage of the flag raising provided a rare and powerful visual record of the battle.

Iwo Jima Flag Raising 1945 – Rare Color Film by Sgt Genaust [#Upscaled#1080p#60FPS#ww2]. Three feet to Joe Rosenthal’s right, Sgt. Genaust captured the flag-raising from nearly the same angle using color motion picture film.

Unveiled in November 1954, the Marine Corps War Memorial in Washington, D.C. was dedicated to all Marines who have given their lives in the defense of the U.S. since 1775. see – https://www.nps.gov/gwmp/learn/historyculture/usmcwarmemorial.htm – retrieved February 19, 2025. October 2003. Author’s photograph. All Rights Reserved.

U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial (Iwo Jima Memorial) – (Arlington, Virginia) – August 1, 2015. PHOTO: “U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial (Iwo Jima Memorial) – (Arlington, Virginia) – August 1, 2015” by cseeman is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

The image captured by Rosenthal’s photograph was widely used in war bond drives and helped rally a weary American home front during the final months of the war. The photograph also inspired the U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial, ensuring the battle’s place in American memory.

US Marine Corps War Memorial, Washington, D.C. The centerpiece of the memorial is a colossal sculpture group by Felix Weihs de Weldon (1907-2003), then on duty with the U.S. Navy, depicting the six Marines who raised the second larger U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima on February 23, 1945. The memorial was designed by Horace Whittier Peaslee, Jr. (1884-1959) and dedicated in November 1954 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. October 2003. Author’s photograph. All Rights Reserved.

Felix Weihs de Weldon. Public Domain.

Marine Post Office, Iwo Jima, 1945. PHOTO: “Marine Post Office, Iwo Jima, 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

US Marine Corps War Memorial, Washington, D.C., was based on the iconic AP photograph by Joe Rosenthal taken on February 23, 1945 of the raising of the U.S. flag at the top of Mount Suribachi at the start of the Battle of Iwo Jima (February 19- March 26, 1945). Rosenthal’s photograph was flashed around the world for the first time on Sunday, February 25, 1945, and instantly became a symbol of the American war effort in the Pacific Theatre during World War II. The Marine Corps War Memorial Foundation organized the fundraising and creation of the monument. The complete cost of the memorial was $850,000 (about $10 million in 2025). The 32-foot-high bronze figures are erecting a 60-foot flag pole onto Mount Suribachi. Important dates in the history of the Marine Corps are burnished in gold into the Swedish marble base. The six marines who raised the flag on Iwo Jima have all been identified and include a sergeant, 2 corporals, and 3 privates first class. Unveiled in November 1954, the Marine Corps War Memorial was dedicated to all Marines who have given their lives in the defense of the U.S. since 1775. October 2003. Author’s photograph. All Rights Reserved.

See Iwo Jima war bond poster here = https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn520954  – retrieved February 19, 2025.

A Battle Remembered

Flags of Our Fathers (2006) is Clint Eastwood’s powerful film about the Battle of Iwo Jima (February 19 to March 26, 1945) and the legacy of one of the most iconic images of World War II. Eastwood directed and co-produced the film and also composed its score. It was released alongside its companion film, Letters from Iwo Jima, which recounts the same battle from the Japanese perspective.

Distributed by Paramount Pictures in the United States and Warner Bros. internationally, the two films earned strong critical praise. Together they form one of cinema’s most thoughtful examinations of war, heroism, and historical memory.

The Photograph That Became a Symbol

The film is based on James Bradley and Ron Powers’ bestselling 2000 book, which explored the experiences of Bradley’s father, Navy corpsman John Bradley, and the five U.S. Marines who raised the American flag atop Mount Suribachi on February 23, 1945.

Captured by Associated Press photographer Joe Rosenthal, the image quickly became one of the most recognizable photographs in American history. Its depiction of determination and sacrifice came to symbolize the United States’ war effort in the Pacific. Decades later, however, further research led the U.S. Marine Corps to revise the identification of several men originally believed to appear in the photograph.

Beyond the Battlefield

While the film contains intense combat sequences depicting the brutal struggle for Iwo Jima, its deeper focus is the human cost of turning soldiers into national symbols.

Three of the flag raisers were killed in action less than a week after the photograph was taken. The surviving participants were returned to the United States, where they became reluctant celebrities. As the war continued, they were enlisted to help promote a nationwide war bond campaign designed to finance the final push toward victory.

The Burden of Heroism

With the war in Europe nearing its end, the photograph and the men associated with it became powerful symbols of American courage and resolve. Yet Flags of Our Fathers questions the nature of heroism itself. The surviving flag raisers struggled with grief, survivor’s guilt, public expectations, and the uncomfortable reality that their fame was based on a single moment overshadowing the sacrifices of thousands of others.

Eastwood’s film ultimately argues that history often elevates symbols while overlooking the complex individuals behind them.

Legacy

More than a conventional war film, Flags of Our Fathers is an exploration of memory, mythmaking, and sacrifice. By examining both the ferocity of combat and the pressures of the home front, the film reveals how a single photograph came to represent a nation at war while forever changing the lives of the men captured within its frame.

Marines Advancing on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: “Marines Advancing on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Marine Field Gun Emplacement on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945. PHOTO: “Marine Field Gun Emplacement on Beach, Iwo Jima, February 1945” by Archives Branch, USMC History Division is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Rosenthal told Collier’s magazine: “The sky was overcast, but just enough sunlight fell from almost directly overhead, because it happened to be about noon, to give the figures a sculptural depth. The 20-foot pipe was heavy, which meant the men had to strain to get it up, imparting that feeling of action. The wind just whipped the flag out over the heads of the group, and at their feet the disrupted terrain and the broken stalks of the shrubbery exemplified the turbulence of war.” Quoted in https://www.usfca.edu/magazine/december-2024/feature/man-behind-the-camera – retrieved Feb. 19, 2025. Wire services flashed Joe Rosenthal’s photograph around the world where it was published on the front pages of more than 200 newspapers on Sunday, February 25, 1945. The photo appeared on magazine covers across the country as well. Following the battle of Iwo Jima, the photo was used for publicity in war bond drives from May 11 to July 4, 1945, which raised an amazing $26.3 billion – by far  the biggest haul of any of the seven U.S. war loan drives during World War II.. Rosenthal’s photograph became an enduring icon. 

USMC Iwo Jima War Memorial at Night, World War II, Veteran Soldiers, American Flag. PHOTO: “USMC Iwo Jima War Memorial at Night, World War II, Veteran Soldiers, American Flag” by Beverly & Pack is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Engineering the City of Broad Shoulders: The Chicago Avenue Bridge (1914) and the Making of Modern Chicago.

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FEATURE image: Portion of the open-grate pony-truss bascule Chicago Avenue Bridge and concrete house, erected in 1914, as it was in its last years of operation. Pointing to increased high traffic volume and load-bearing capacity issues, the 104-year-old bridge was demolished and replaced in 2018. Author’s photograph taken in May 2016.

The Chicago Avenue Bridge (1914) embodied the engineering ambition and industrial confidence of early twentieth-century Chicago. As a functional open-grate pony truss bascule bridge spanning the Chicago River, it reflected the city’s commitment to commerce, transportation, and technological innovation. Its demolition in 2018 marked not only the loss of a working piece of infrastructure but also the disappearance of a tangible artifact from Chicago’s era of rapid urban and industrial growth.

The expanse of the Chicago Avenue Bridge over the North Branch of the Chicago River near Goose Island. The steel beam pony truss bridge was built in 1914 and demolished in 2018. It was replaced by a temporary crossing in 2019. PHOTO: “Chicago Avenue Bridge” by swanksalot is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

PHOTO: “File:Architecture Tour 25 Chicago Avenue Bridge (185544768).jpg” by discosour is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0

Built in 1914, the bridge was part of Chicago’s extensive system of movable river bridges that enabled both street traffic and river navigation. Designed by the engineering firm Ketler-Elliot, it represented the practical and elegant bridge engineering of the City Beautiful and Progressive Era.

Built in 1914 by Ketler-Elliot Erection Company of Chicago, the original Chicago Avenue Bridge was one of the oldest pony truss bascule bridges in Chicago. Connecting River North and River West, the steel bridge was, after 104 years, demolished in November 2018 and replaced five months later, in 2019, by a temporary fixed bridge. Since this portion of the river is now used mostly for recreational purposes, a new, permanent immovable concrete bridge was expected to open over the Chicago River in this location starting in 2021, delayed by the pandemic, and that will not be a bascule bridge.

Looking west along the old Chicago Avenue Bridge. The pony (steel) truss bridge allows for road and river traffic over and through the truss, but with no cross brace across the top connecting its two sides. PHOTO: “Looking west on Chicago Avenue bridge” by Steven Vance is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

The open-grate roadway and pony truss bascule design were characteristic solutions for heavily trafficked urban waterways. The bridge served as a critical link between the Near North Side and the Near West Side for more than a century.

A pony truss bridge is a steel truss bridge that allows traffic over and through the truss, but with no cross brace across the top connecting its two sides. The truss bridge assembly of the Chicago Avenue Bridge was made of riveted steel beams—and a witness to Chicago’s early 20th century industrial manufacturing might.

As well as being “Hog Butcher For The World, Tool Maker, Stacker of Wheat, Player with Railroads and the Nation’s Freight Handler” as Carl Sandberg wrote in his 1914 poem, Chicago, published in the new (1912) Poetry magazine, Chicago was also at that time a world leader in steel production and bridge design.

Looking east at the new Chicago Avenue Bridge in November 1914. Public Domain.

The same vantage point in recent years. PHOTO: “Looking east on Chicago Avenue bridge” by Steven Vance is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

The basic design of any bascule bridge is similar to a medieval castle drawbridge. A leaf or span rises and descends that permits traffic upon it and— for the Chicago Avenue Bridge— also traffic below it on the Chicago River.

Chicago boasts more than 50 movable bridges. Single-leaf (truss) bascule bridges were constructed where the river was not very wide and a single bridge deck goes up and down between abutments. This was often used for train traffic which was convenient since Chicago was and still remains the railroad capital of the United States.

The more common double-leaf (truss) bascule bridge— including the Chicago Avenue Bridge—consists of two leaves or spans which meet in the middle over the river. Counterweights on each side of the bridge beneath it in a river pit (or pits) balances, stabilizes and fortifies the vertical movement of the bridge deck.

If the bridge deck is single leaf, the “Chicago Style” bridge rises in a piece vertically to one side of the river. If the bridge deck is two leaves, each rise to their side of the river and descend to close again by meeting in the middle of the bridge deck.

Its steel construction and mechanical movable span illustrated Chicago’s emergence as a world leader in infrastructure and civil engineering. The structure was closely tied to the industrial, commercial, and maritime history of the Chicago River.

Structural View of a bascule leaf, Chicago Avenue Bridge. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/pnp/habshaer/il/il0800/il0823/photos/318219pr.jpg . Fair Use.

Bascule bridges are the most commonly found moveable bridges in the world because they operate quickly and efficiently. The Chicago Avenue Bridge was operated from a companion pitched-roof bridge house with rounded corners and rows of windows clad in decorative (today oxidized green) copper.  The foundational portions of the bridge house were constructed of concrete. Upper portions were made of wood with roofing of vitrified tile. So far, the bridge house portion of the structure has not been demolished.

In 1914, the new Chicago Avenue Bridge across a jag of Chicago River abutting the national headquarters of Montgomery Ward whose complex was first built in 1907, made for a sleek, powerful, modern and elegant statement about industry and urban commerce in early 20th century Middle America.

The pitched-roof bridge house of the Chicago Avenue Bridge had rounded corners and rows of windows clad in decorative copper. PHOTO: “Offering a historic bridge for sale is a meaningless and empty gesture. RIP Chicago Avenue bridge.” by reallyboring is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Interior of the concrete bridge house, 1914. Chicago Avenue Bridge. This was one of the first permanent and decorative bridge houses constructed for Chicago. see – https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/il0823.photos.318222p/resource/ Public Domain.

Historic photographs of the bridge provide a record of a Chicago that was simultaneously industrial, architectural, and intensely urban.

When the Chicago Avenue Bridge opened in 1914, Chicago was the world leader in steel production and bridge design. Chicago Mayor Carter H. Harrison, Jr. (1860-1953) whose name appears on the dedication plaque was a five-term Democrat incumbent from 1897 to 1905 and from 1911 to 1915. PHOTO: “Carter H Harrison Mayor marker – Chicago Avenue Bridge” by swanksalot is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

There are numerous variations and designs of the bascule bridge which in Chicago includes the trunnion (“pivot point”) bascule (“seesaw”) bridge. The nation’s first such bridge started operation in Chicago in 1902 over the north branch of the Chicago River at Cortland Street which can still be seen in operation today. The bridge design became known as the “Chicago Style” as its leaf or leaves, suspended on axles (trunnions) with massive concrete counterweights located below the bridge in the riverbank pit, opens and lifts a single or dual bridge deck to clear the river for traffic without blocking the waterway with a central pier.

Counterweight trunnion rack and pinion and counterweight, Chicago Avenue Bridge. see – https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/il0823.photos.318218p/resource/ Public Domain.

Chicago’s bascule bridges—and the Chicago Avenue Bridge was one of them—were designed to its specific location. Each was designed to take on heavy loads and the attendant vibration which included the ice and snow pack of Chicago’s typically harsh winters. The design and construction into bedrock took into account wind resistance, whether the bridge leaves were open or closed, and to wind speeds of 100 miles per hour in any and all directions.

By 1920, improvements in bascule bridge design allowed for the construction of a double deck trunnion bascule bridge where car, truck and foot traffic could be carried simultaneously on its upper and lower decks. The first such double deck trunnion bascule bridge in Chicago was near the site of the old Fort Dearborn on the Chicago River at Michigan Avenue—today’s busy DuSable Bridge, formerly Michigan Avenue Bridge which opened in May 1920.

The Chicago Avenue Bridge is also significant as it belonged to a set of Chicago city bridges built between 1910 and 1915 whose designs looked to go beyond their utilitarian function to incorporate artistic and other aesthetic elements. Beginning with the Chicago Avenue Bridge in 1913, the Chicago Planning Commission worked with the city’s Bridge Division at the bascule bridge’s design stage.

Engineer’s blueprint of the Chicago Avenue Bridge, 1914. Public Domain. The blueprint shows the technical plans and cross-sections for the historical bascule drawbridge over the Chicago River at West Chicago Avenue. The detailed architectural drawings outline:

  • The Top-Down Site Plan (Top): Shows the layout of the river channel, streetcar rails, sidewalks, and neighboring historic properties (like the Montgomery Ward Co. Building, Merchants Lighterage Co., and City Yards).
  • The Structural Cross-Section (Middle): Details the bridge’s lane width, clearance dimensions, trolley wires, and structural framing.
  • The Profile Elevation (Bottom): Illustrates the trunnion mechanics, bridge towers, operators’ houses, underwater riverbed depth, and the underground utility tunnels beneath the city datum line.

Demolition in 2018 reflected the ongoing tension between infrastructure modernization and historic preservation.

Following the demolition of the Chicago Avenue Bridge in 2018, an immoveable temporary steel girder bridge was installed in 2019 over this span of the Chicago River. For the moment, bridge design has returned to utilitarian functionality alone with little or no artistic or aesthetic program which had been one of the progressive features of the Chicago Avenue Bridge over a century ago.

Temporary replacement bridge, Chicago Avenue at the Chicago River, 2019. PHOTO: “Chicago – Chicago Avenue bridge, north branch of Chicago river” by ukdamian is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0

SOURCES:

Blasius, Elizabeth. “Chicago Offers Up Historic Chicago Avenue Bridge for Free.” The Architect’s Newspaper, June 25, 2018. https://www.archpaper.com/2018/06/chicago-offers-historic-chicago-avenue-bridge-free/.

“Construction Near Chicago Avenue Bridge to Impact Traffic.” Curbed Chicago, October 29, 2018. https://chicago.curbed.com/2018/10/29/18038134/construction-chicago-avenue-bridge-traffic.

Holth, Nathan. “Chicago Avenue Bridge.” HistoricBridges.org. https://historicbridges.org/bridges/browser/?bridgebrowser=illinois/chicago/.

Library of Congress. “Chicago Avenue Bascule Bridge, Spanning North Branch of Chicago River at Chicago Avenue, Chicago, Cook County, IL.” Historic American Engineering Record, HAER IL-23. https://loc.gov/pictures/item/IL0823/.

Phillips, James S. “The Chicago Type Trunnion Bascule Bridge.” Chicago Loop Bridges. http://chicagoloopbridges.com/Ctype.html.

Preservation Chicago. “THREATENED: Historic Chicago Avenue Bridge Targeted for Demolition.” June 30, 2018. https://preservationchicago.org/newsletter_posts/threatened-historic-chicago-avenue-bridge-targeted-for-demolition/.

Solzman, David M. The Chicago River: An Illustrated History and Guide to the River and Its Waterways. Chicago: Wild Onion Books, 1998.